How the Fraternal Nature of Policing Affects the Racial Identity of Its African-American Officers?

“Some months before I became a cop on the force, there were a group of Black leaders who thought that the Black community would be better served by having African-American officers servicing African-American communities.” Preston Williams explained to The Louisiana Weekly. “If you follow that logic however, it seemed like a good idea on the surface to have Black officers policing Black communities, but there was still a conflict back then because there weren’t that many Black police and so it was necessary for both Black and white officers to patrol African-American communities; and your white officers would [have] policed differently than Black officers.

“Additionally,” Williams continued, “white officers after putting in their eight hours would return to their homes in the suburbs. On the other hand, we, the Black officers lived in the city – living in the midst of our people; and some of the Black officers as I recalled, because of the low pay back then, actually lived in the projects. It was a conflict very similar to ‘The Souls of Black’ police officers. You the oppressed, are now employed by the oppressor. Now however, I understand that times have changed over the years and therefore more Black officers now live in the suburbs resulting in less internal conflict for these African-American police officers, but once again it exacerbates that “Us vs. Them’ mentality.”

“The amazing thing about being a Black police officer today is that while there is sort of an overall, broad-based, ‘Us vs. Them” mentality,” Dr. John Penney explained. “On a personal level, it breaks down into self division, and the reality of it all is that if you are a Black police officer there are things you feel are different for you than for white police officers.

“Even today,” Dr. Penney continued, “there are Black officers who won’t voice it, but who feel ambivalent in their capacity to perform their duties. For example, not being able to go uptown to arrest a wealthy white person without the consent of their supervisors; but yet these same Black officers have no reluctance to do go into an affluent Black neighborhood, such as Eastover, and arrest an African American.”

“Black cops will do to Black people what white cops have done to them for ages,” Preston Williams insisted. “A recent computer-generated experiment constructed by a couple of psychologists relating to race bias in shooting by law enforcement officers demonstrated this phenomenon. The program was designed to flash various images on the screen of white, Black, and other, males and females; and the officer had a matter of seconds to decide if the subject was armed and whether or not to shoot. The result of this experiment was that Black cops, as well as white cops, shot the unarmed Black male more, and more often, at about the same rate.”

“We make assumptions that over the years, things with regard to race have changed,” Dr. Penney told The Louisiana Weekly. “And to a certain extent they have. But now we have to consider the fact that there are police officers who are of African descent, who believe that they have to be better than their white counterparts and have to go a step further just to prove themselves; to prove that they are really a member of the fraternity, the brotherhood, and part of that collective thinking and acting process distinctive to the Blue Wall. It’s been known to me for some time that many Black officers believe that they have to crack more Black heads, in a sense, to be initiated into, or to win the trust of the fraternity.”

By Any Means Necessary — The Unrestrained Use of Force

“Danziger was the exception to the rule,” Preston Williams told The Louisiana Weekly. “Usually, as in the case of Henry Glover, you find younger, inexperienced officers more apt to use excessive force to subdue a suspect or bring a situation under control. Usually there’s a fear factor involved, a lack of confidence on the part of the inexperienced officer. They lack the skills and knowledge to consider possible alternatives – so they resort to using their gun.”

According to Barry (1977), “when the statistics are divided based on race, officers disagree. Most white officers (95 percent) do not believe police are more likely to use physical force against Blacks and other minorities than against whites in similar situations. The majority of Black and other minority officers (69.5 percent) believe persons who look like them are more likely to receive physical force from police. The officers were also divided regarding their views on the use of physical force on persons of different socioeconomic classes. When asked if police officers are more likely to use force against poor people than against middle-class people in similar situations, 91.2 percent of white officers disagreed, while 71.6 percent of Black and other minority officers agreed. Nearly all law enforcement supervisors (97.3 percent) agree “good first-line supervision can help prevent police officers from abusing authority.”

According to the Plant, et al (2005) experiment, “it seems possible that police officers’ responses to criminal suspects are influenced by the suspects’ race. An examination of the officers’ responses revealed that… the officers tested, [both Black and white] were initially more likely to mistakenly shoot unarmed Black suspects than unarmed white suspects. These findings are troubling because racial biases in officers’ responses to criminal suspects could have tragic implications if such biases generalize to real-life decisions [e.g. Danziger]. However, on a more promising note, after extensive exposure to the various scenarios, the officers were successfully able to eliminate this bias. The significance of this is that bias can be eliminated under controlled and intensive training.”

Research also shows that female officers [of both races] are more apt to use different verbal and nonverbal techniques to control situations; are less likely to use force in a situation; and less likely to engage in conduct unbecoming of an officer (e.g. cover-ups) than their male counterparts. Female officers consistently receive fewer complaints and are generally rated higher than their male counterparts by citizens as it relates to respect and courtesy. Some argue that there is a direct correlation between the increase in female representation on the force and the decrease in the use of unnecessary force against citizenry.

Why Cover-Ups Are More Likely to Occur Now Than at Any Time in the History of the NOPD

“Consider that prior to… the 1980s, white officers had less to fear with regard to illegal abuses on Black citizens because (1.) Blacks were not chosen for juries; (2.) all of the judges were white; (3.) your district attorney was white (4.) the NOPD was predominantly white, and (5.) Blacks had little political clout,” Williams told The Louisiana Weekly. “Very rarely did a white jury take the word of a Black defendant over that of a white police officer. Today however, times have changed, and in Orleans Parish, more often than not, you’re gonna have a predominantly Black jury and more and more judges are now Black. Remember, it was a white judge, Raymond Bigelow, who tossed out the murder charges in the first. Danziger trial. Today a white cop who is charged and arrested in Orleans Parish is going to face a predominantly Black jury and a white cop who goes before a predominantly Black jury, especially if it’s a racial incident, is more likely to be found guilty.

“The Black community historically is not trusting of cops in general, and white cops in particular,” Williams continued. “So it becomes almost essential for white police officers to engage in cover-ups to protect themselves from the wrath of Black jurors.

“Additionally,” Williams added, “you’ll find — with the rare exception of Eddie Jordan — the New Orleans D.A.’s Office is reluctant to bring police officers to trial. If you notice, it’s almost always federal prosecutors who bring NOPD officers to trial. Whether a prosecutor is white or whether he/she is Black, bringing cops to trial does nothing to enhance the district attorney’s relationship with the police department – a relationship that has to work in order to keep the wheels of justice turning.”

We Have Found the Enemy and They Are In Fact, Us!

As stated at the outset of this article, the intent here is not to demean, degrade or diminish the significance of the city’s police department. Overwhelmingly and without question, the police force is made up of good and decent folk, individuals with character, integrity, honesty and who truly care about New Orleans and its citizens. They are in fact our mothers and fathers, sons and daughters, sisters and brothers, and neighbors and friends – they are in fact – US. They are also OUR HEROES, heroes that we call upon in times of need and desperation. So it would be remiss on The Louisiana Weekly’s part not to acknowledge some of the unique challenges that these special people face in the performance of their duties.

The duties of a police officer are complex, wide-ranging, allow for little error, and oftentimes bring them face to face with the possibility of injury or even death. Moral dilemmas abound; often having to weigh the value of an individual’s constitutional rights against that of the specific circumstances of his/her arrest, or bending the rules to ensure that justice is done. Undue pressure is placed upon these individuals from the public, politicians, and even other criminal justice professionals to make arrests, gather evidence, obtain confessions, and act as witnesses in trials to assist in acquiring convictions. It is not an easy job.
Routine Does Not Exist in the Life of an NOPD Officer

On Monday, August 9, 2004, “Officer LaToya Nicole Johnson and her partner were assigned to serve commitment papers on a male whose family said he was in need of psychiatric evaluation. It was a routine assignment. When the officers arrived, the male confronted them with a gun. The suspect opened fire on the officers, and struck Officer Johnson. After Officer Johnson fell, the suspect stood over her and fired several more shots.”

She was a 27-year-old single parent, who would become the first female in the history of the New Orleans Police Department killed in the line of duty.

Mental retardation and mental illness are two distinct medical conditions, yet police officers are unrealistically expected not only to recognize people with mental disorders, as opposed to them having a medical disorder, or as opposed to them simply being drunk; but virtually diagnose the disorder, in order to effectively interact with them, based on a single encounter – psychiatrists can’t even do that.

Female Officers — Style and Technique

While differences in attitudes of male officers towards female officers have diminished over time, literature consistently shows that older, more traditional veteran male officers continue to hold stereotypical views with regard to a female’s physical strength as well as their role in society. They tend to harbor the greatest resistance in accepting female officers as their contemporaries. Moderate veteran officers, those normally with a greater degree of education, tended to accept the concept of female officers in principle, however they too resist the idea of women officers actively patrolling the streets.

Younger, more educated, new male recruits generally tend to accept the role of women in law enforcement with greater ease, and as their equals.

African-American Officers — Receptive to Change

African-American officers and their white counterparts tend to have different views as it relates to the use of force against Black citizens. In a recent study, nearly half of the African-American officers surveyed stated that police generally are more likely to use force against Blacks; as compared to less than five percent of the white officers surveyed. African-American officers tend to be more receptive to change and the use of innovative techniques and technologies. They tend to embrace citizen oversight to a greater extent than officers of other cultural backgrounds. Youn­ger Black officers are more apt to criticize questionable departmental policy and protocol to a greater extent than veteran officers, or even their young white counterparts.

Hispanic/Latino Officers — Respect and Equality

While the literature with regard to Hispanic/Latino law enforcement practices is woefully deficient, that which does exists tends to show that most Hispanic/Latino officers believe that police departments across the board tends to discriminate against Hispanic citizens and Hispanic police officers with regard to promotions and hiring. Hispanic/Latino officers, like Black officers are faced with successfully navigating their dual roles of self-identity – that of being a police officer, and that of being members of the Hispanic/Latino community.

When the Risks Outweighs the Benefits

Salaries over the years for officers working in urban communities have risen steadily due primarily to competition from other suburban and/or rural police districts, also seeking qualified and experienced members of law enforcement.

Salaries, while usually tied to tenure and rank, can often be enhanced and/or supplemented by federal grants, shift differentials, hazardous duty pay, tuition re-imbursement, overtime pay, performance evaluation raises and promotions.

A lack of career opportunities however is a major drawback for dedicated police officers. Promo­tions are limited and usually require a number of years in a certain position before being eligible to apply. Promotional openings occur sporadically through attrition, or on rare occasions, when the budget permits, expanding the police force. Candidates for promotions are often chosen based on the officer’s performance on a civil service exam. The final selections are usually based on tenure and personal ties, rather than merit. Research also shows that despite a surge in the hiring of female officers, a “glass ceiling” in terms of advancement exists.

Due to the nature of police work, job stress levels are considerably higher than individuals in other professions. Faced with the constant threat of danger; unruly citizens; instable adrenalin rushes – resulting from being in a state of constant readiness; boredom – sitting in a car for hours at a time; witnessing human suffering and death; living under the microscope – constant oversight and complaints from, supervisors, citizens, bureaucrats, and activists; and the unrealistic expectation to execute their duties flawlessly; stress tend to accumulate. The cumulative effects of this stress for police officers are frequently delayed, and often result in burnout, a condition mimicking the symptoms of PTSD or Post Traumatic Stress Disorder. Female officers, as well as Black and other minority officers, experience “unique stress.” Females often must deal with blatant and/or suggestive sexual harassment, stereotypes, and need to prove themselves in order to gain acceptance from their male counterparts. Blacks and other minorities must deal with racial bias and prejudice, both in and outside of the department; stereotypes; and their dual roles resulting from being both a minority and that of being a police officer. And, the stress does not end with each individual police officer – their families also suffer. Family-related stress includes, the fear of not knowing if their love one will be injured or killed; isolation which leads to communication problems; and erratic job schedules. As a result, police officers consistently rank higher with regard to alcoholism, heart attacks, suicide, infidelity and divorce as compared to members of other professions.

This article was originally published in the October 10, 2011 print edition of The Louisiana Weekly newspaper